BASIC SCIENCE increases our UNDERSTANDING of NATURE and APPLIED SCIENCE increases our POWER over NATURE

Francis Bacon

"Research in APPLIED science leads to REFORMS; research in PURE science to REVOLUTIONS"

J. J. Thomson

Contributions of Science to Technology

1. Science as a direct source of new technological ideas ("pipeline")
2. Science as a source of engineering design tools and techniques
3. Instrumentation, laboratory techniques, and analytical methods
4. The development of human skills
5. Technology assessment
6. Science as a source of development strategy

Contributions of Technology to Science

1. Technology as a source of new scientific challenges
2. Instrumentation and measurement techniques

PUBLIC ACCESS:

• ballooning (France)
• Mesmerism (France)
• Royal Institution lectures (England):
  • a society founded in 1799 to encourage study and SPREAD of scientific knowledge
  • e.g. of DAVY and Faraday meeting
• electricity captures the public imagination:
  • Luigi GALVANI ("animal electricity") - late 18th c.
  • Alessandro VOLTA - his cell (1800)
  • H. C. ÖERSTED and André Marie AMPERE (mathematization of electricity and magnetism)
  • G. S. OHM - law of conduction (1826)
  • Michael FARADAY's 1831 experiment - electromagnetic induction
  • James Clerk MAXWELL (1865) - prediction of electromagnetic waves
  • Heinrich HERTZ (1888) - first broadcast and received radio waves
  • Guglielmo MARCONI's wireless telegraphy (1895/6) - Dec. 12, 1901 received signal from Cornwall, U.K. in St. John's, NFLD.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION and anti-technology Luddite rebellion of 1810

ELITE ACCESS

• scientific association meetings
• language of science
• OXFORD debate of 1860
• scientific PRIZES

1. in 19th century, most scientists were AMATEURS
   • "SCIENTIST": term coined in 1840
   • "TECHNOLOGY": term used in 1829
2. FEAR of ELITISM
3. pseudosciences like MESMERISM and PHRENOLOGY popular with the PUBLIC
4. practical bent re: SCHOOLS in U.S.:
   • by late 1870s, less than 12 university GRADUATE programs in pure sciences but 85 ENGINEERING schools (i.e. Franklin Institute, Rensselaer Polytechnic and Cooper Institute)
5. few SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS: in 1845, only American Journal of Science
6. SCIENCE FICTION
   • started with Mary Shelley's FRANKENSTEIN; Or the Modern Prometheus (1818)
   • SCIENCE FICTION in magazines:
   • Hugo Gernsback: by 1923, devotes entire issue of Electrical Experimenter to "science fiction"
7. Democratization of science: Americans insisted that their science be COMPREHENSIBLE
   • one 19th century scientist complained that, to meet the "vulgar appetites of the people", he had to "dilute" his scientific writings
   • scientist/theoretician seen as vaguely ARISTOCRATIC vs. scientist/engineer as DEMOCRATIC
   • creation of LAZZARONI in 1838
   • became the AAAS in 1848
8. TECHNOLOGY FAIRS
   • first one in 1846 in Washington
9. in U.S. it was a question of REFORM vs. REVOLUTION
10. FEAR of SCIENCE

Canadian Universities offering Engineering

The UofT story

you have read the history up to the 1870sSchool of Practical Science in Nov. 1870, William Dawson (McGill) made a speech on the need for science education
George Brown, editor of the Tor. Globe to urge "a beginning of the great work of technical education in Ontario"
Ontario government sent delegation to: Harvard, Yale, Columbia, MIT, Worcester, Cornell, RPI, and Cooper Union (NYC)
Proposed five areas of study
1) Pure and applied mathematics (incl. math, nat. phil., engineering [civ. and mil.], and surveying)
2) Architecture and Drawing
3) Pure and Applied Chemistry
4) Natural Science
5) Modern languages (Fr. & Ger.)
Institute was not to be attached to any other

1871: College of Technology chartered by govt.

• to teach: mathematics, modern languages, civil & mechanical engineering, and drawing

1872/3: School of Practical Science of Toronto

housed in an extension to Mechanics Institute bldgs.
British Tradition from 1820s
They became very common in mid-century: 269 in Ontario by 1882
Toronto MI founded 1831 to provide classes and reading mat'l for the working classes (semi-free)
1868-80, Public Schools began opening, largely taking away the students
in 1882, the Free Library Act of Ontario transferred the books of the MI to the municipalities. Therefore, MIs are the core of the Ontario Public Library system

1877/8: SPS moved up to the UC campus into the Old red schoolhouse

housed most science for the university: Loudon (physics), Chapman (geology), Croft (chemistry) Ramsay Wright (biology)
set itself apart from UC (still separate) by providing instruction in mining engineering and mechanical and manufacturing arts and by being supported ($$) by the province directly.Courses:
chemistry (theoretical, practical, and applied), applied mathematics, descriptive geometry, physics & mechanics, mineralogy & geology, metallurgy, mechanical drawing, engineering and mining, surveying, and machinerybut also botany, zoology
The first professor, who taught everything except chem, bio, and geol.: John Galbraith

1889 Pure sciences severed by govt. and SPS now independent Engineering school

1900 University called SPS its FAS

1906 SPS FASE formally united the two bodies of UofT and SPS (SPS no longer exists on books)

Question of Science in Engineering Schools

this automatically degrades engineering
UBC still includes the School of Nursing under the Faculty of Applied Science
UofT had the school of architecture as part of FASE

Science after WWII

impetus came from the U.S: Science won the warCanada and Britain in WW2
as Britain became more an more threatened, Britain began using Canada for more and more researchradar, uranium fission, aviation medicine, chemical warfare, wooden aircraft, and explosives.
Initially some fallout (particularly in aviation), but most dried up.
Sputnik in 1957 real rocks the world.
This is when the Ph.D. also comes in as credentials

Pre WW2 conception of Science

NO, but engineering gets scientific after the war.
back in 1916 (during WWI), a federal panel was assigned to
1. "organize, mobilize, and encourage existing research agencies in Canada, so as to utilize waste products, discover new processes, and exploit unused natural resources"

2. "to make a comprehensive survey of scientific and industrial research in Canada and to examine the possibilities of expansion"

3. "to coördinate current research, foster a community of interest among research agencies, and link science and technology with labour and capital, and to develop ways and means of enlarging the scope of Canadian research."

This became the National Research Council (NRC)
Up until WWII, the NRC could not find enough people to fund.

The Engineer up into the 1920s is an outdoor person.

• in the 1920s and into the 30s, the Engineer was a heroic rugged individual
• there were even a number of silent films in the mid-20s with competing engineers "who gets the girl?" stuff

Tech as knowledge

independent, and interdependent (metaphor: intertwined DNA strands)
technology, although it may apply science, is not the same as or entirely applied science

Local Attitudes

1892- Prof. Galbraith on "Technical Education"

emphasizes that the teachers must be practical men, but "there are very few men in the... professions... who have had sufficient training in science to make them successful teachers - their knowledge is practical, not scientific."


they need to be both scientists and travel to se current mfg. processes, &c.


The key, Galbraith realized was that "the principal work of a technical school is the teaching of science, and not, as many suppose, to turn out fully fledged engineers...; all that it can pretend to do is turn out partially educated men."

1885 Engineering Society of SPS founded by students
GOALS:
1. the encouragement of original research in the Science of Engineering
   
2. The preservation of the results of such research
   
3. The dissemination of such results among its members
   
4. The cultivation of a spirit of mutual assistance among the members in the practice and profession of engineering
Early papers are hardly scientific
They did, occasionally get "new" science, e.g.:
1894 "Aerial Mechanical Flight"
1895 "Roentgen Radiation"
1913 Taylor and Gilbrith came to talk about Scientific Management
1909- Pres. of UofT, R.A Falconer on "The Needs of the FAS"
Sees SPS/FASE as scientists
1914 Haultain
"The difference between Science and Applied Science [is] something like the difference between wall paper in the roll and on the wall"
On H.A. Innis' idea of "hewers of wood and drawers of water"
- no, slaves do that; Engineers wield the weapon that keep the slaves going
"polished or unpolished, modern science is so wonderful and the story of it is told so well that the forger of this weapon appears on a very much higher plane than the wielder of it"
Haultain argues that the man who knows which weapon to choose and how to wield it is due more respect than the artisan
"This wielding of the engineer is new, is so very new and is growing so rapidly that we have no comprehensive view of it. It is not part of the so-called sciences, it is not applied science, it is man in action, using the sciences - in the most complex and useful action progress has had."