The Revolutions of 1848

History 241F

I: The (Brief) Age of Revolution

-tragic, failed revolutions

-nonetheless of consequence: shape political landscape that follows; also supply vernacular of revolution (barricades, world revolution, etc)

General characteristics of 1848 revolutions

-no European revolution has ever been so widely foretold as this one

-nor has one ever moved so rapidly across across Europe.

-almost everywhere, revolt met with rapid success

-and in the same way, every important revolt was rapidly crushed

-it's this rapidity which lends 1848 its romantic, but also its tragic character

-though pattern varied, can say there were three main reasons for collapse of revolutions:

first, were never as strong as they seemed at first -- powers retreated as it were,before the revolutionaries, rather than falling beneath them.

second, internal divisions among the revolutionaries -- between liberals and nationalists, between radicals and moderates, between "political" and "social" revolutionaries -- weakened the revolutionary forces

third, the revolutions tended to leave the sources of state power intact, so that the forces of reaction always had a base to retreat back to.

II. Lead-Up

Economic crisis

"Hungry 40’s"

-financial depression (business cycle)

Revolutionary and reformist societiesi nplace all over Europe.

-aims of radicals and moderates differ substantially

II. Phase I -- Swift Success

From Outbreak in Paris Feb 1848, revn spreads like wildfire all over Western and Central Europe.

France

Germany

Bavaria, Prussia, Frankfurt Parliament

Habsburg Lands

This is more complicated — lots of separate revolts. 4 big ones: Vienna; Prague; Hungary; Lombardy.

Italy

Liberals and nationalists rally in Piedmont, Lombardy of course, Two Sicilies, even Papal States.

III. Phase II: collapse from within (except Hungary!)

In second phase, tensions become manifest. In Fact, economic interests of property owners, businessman, financiers, really not at all aligned with those of working people. On political level, aims of liberals (mostly, establishment of constitutional monarchy,except in France, where moderates hope for very limited form of democracy) not necessarily compatible with those of radicals.

France:

Radicals quickly lose popular support

"June Days" follow

Germany:

In Prussia, reformers attempt to pass constitution, get dissolved by F W IV, let themselves be dissolved rather than appeal to unperdictabe forces of thestreet

Frankfurt parliament keeps meeting, but powerless.

Austria:

Czech, Lombard, Hungarian forces defeated.

IV. Phase 3: restoration and reaction

By Spring of 1849, every one of the revolutions is effectively dead

France

In December 1848, Napoleon’s nephew elected president by wide margin

1851 coup

Germany

"March Cabinets" fall

Prussian king rolls back reforms

Frankfurt Parliamejnt disbanded

Habsburg Lands

Revolution already defeated in Milan, Prague by June 1848

Hungarians fight on, challenge Habsburgs, in March 49 declare independence as republic with Louis Kossuth (libeal noble) aspresident; defeat Austrian armies: finally surrender to massive Russian force.

By mid-49, rest of Italian states had also crumbled; final blow dealt to Papl States by French forces under L-N. Piedmont is lonely surviving constitutional state.

V. Legacies of Revolution

Less concrete than Revolution of 1793:

-radicals: can’t trust liberals

-feminists: can’t trust ANYONE!

-Nationalists: maybe liberalism isn’t the way

-conservatives: need to adapt